CP v2

Category: Relationships

  • MIT brain study suggests Esperanto and Klingon engage the same language network as English

    New research from MIT neuroscientists suggests the human brain processes constructed languages such as Esperanto and Klingon in much the same way it handles widely spoken natural languages. Using functional MRI, the team found that core language regions activate when proficient speakers listen to sentences in these invented languages.

    The study focused on the brain’s established language network, a set of areas that reliably responds when people hear their native tongue or another language they know well. Researchers say the findings help clarify what makes something count as language in the brain, beyond history, popularity, or cultural reach.

    How the experiment was run

    To test the idea, MIT convened speakers of several constructed languages for a weekend data-collection event in November 2022. Participants included people proficient in Esperanto, Klingon from Star Trek, Na’vi from Avatar, and High Valyrian and Dothraki from Game of Thrones.

    In total, 44 speakers underwent fMRI scanning while listening to sentences in a constructed language they knew. For comparison, they also listened to or read sentences in their native language and completed nonlinguistic tasks designed to separate language processing from general effort.

    Across participants, the same language-selective brain regions were engaged for constructed languages and native languages. The researchers interpret this as evidence that linguistic meaning and structure, not a language’s natural evolution, are key to recruiting the language network.

    Why conlangs differ from code

    The findings also sharpen a contrast the team has reported in earlier work on programming languages. While code is an invented symbolic system, prior neuroimaging results indicate it relies more heavily on the brain’s multiple demand network, which supports effortful reasoning and problem solving.

    MIT researchers argue the difference may come down to what kinds of meaning are expressed. Natural and constructed languages can describe objects, events, and internal states, whereas programming languages tend to operate as more self-contained, highly abstract systems.

    That distinction suggests a practical test for what the brain treats as language: whether it supports open-ended communication about the inner and outer world. It also implies that a relatively new language with a modest number of speakers can still be fully language-like to the brain if people become proficient in it.

    What researchers plan next

    The team says future work will probe additional constructed languages, including Lojban, which was designed to reduce ambiguity through highly explicit grammar and logic-oriented design. Researchers hope this will further narrow which properties are necessary to activate the language network.

    Beyond conlang communities, the results may inform broader debates in cognitive science about language, meaning, and human learning. They may also help separate language processing from other complex symbol systems, a distinction with implications for education and human-computer interaction.

  • Study identifies a relationship tipping point that often predicts a breakup 1–2 years ahead

    Romantic breakups often follow a recognizable pattern rather than arriving without warning, according to a large analysis of long-running survey data from several countries. Researchers say relationship satisfaction can enter a two-stage decline, with a distinct tipping point appearing about one to two years before separation.

    The work, led by psychologist Janina Bühler of Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz with Ulrich Orth of the University of Bern, was published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Instead of tracking how satisfaction changes from the start of a relationship, the team examined what happens as couples move closer to a breakup.

    How the tipping point emerges

    The researchers describe an extended preterminal phase in which satisfaction drops slowly over several years. After that comes a transition point where satisfaction begins to fall much faster, marking the start of a terminal phase that typically lasts 7 to 28 months.

    This accelerated decline was seen in people whose relationships later ended, but not in a matched control group of couples who stayed together. The finding suggests the rapid-drop phase is not simply normal relationship fluctuation, but a pattern more closely linked to eventual dissolution.

    Evidence from four national studies

    The analysis drew on four large, nationally based longitudinal studies from Germany, Australia, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands, covering 11 295 individuals and spanning 12 to 21 years of follow-up. Participants were repeatedly asked to rate how satisfied they were with their current romantic relationship.

    The team focused on time-to-separation, a method used in other areas of psychology to capture end-stage changes before an outcome occurs. By aligning responses to the point of breakup, they mapped how satisfaction shifts as separation approaches.

    Partners often experience it differently

    The decline can look different depending on who ultimately initiates the breakup. The partner who initiates separation tends to show earlier dissatisfaction, while the partner who is left often reaches the tipping point later and then experiences a sharper drop shortly before the split.

    The researchers say this gap may help explain why breakups can feel sudden to one partner but long-developing to the other. They also argue that many couples seek help after the transition point, when the relationship is already in the fast-decline stage and may be harder to stabilize.

    While the study does not claim every relationship follows the same timeline, it highlights warning patterns that may be detectable well in advance. The authors suggest that interventions during the slower preterminal phase may be more effective than waiting until dissatisfaction accelerates.

  • Study hints ADHD could raise dementia risk, with brain iron and blood markers offering early clues

    Adults diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder may face a higher risk of developing dementia later in life, according to new research from Geneva University Hospitals and the University of Geneva. The study links ADHD to biological changes often seen in age-related neurodegenerative disease.

    Researchers reported that adults with ADHD showed altered iron levels in specific brain regions and higher concentrations of a blood marker tied to nerve cell damage. Both signals have been associated in previous research with conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease.

    Brain iron and nerve damage marker

    The team examined 32 adults aged 25 to 45 with ADHD and 29 similarly aged healthy participants. Using an MRI technique called quantitative susceptibility mapping, they estimated iron content across brain areas and compared it with blood measurements.

    Participants with ADHD had different iron distribution in several regions, and iron in the precentral cortex was associated with higher neurofilament light chain levels in blood. Neurofilament light chain is widely used in neurology research as an indicator of ongoing neuronal injury.

    Why iron may matter

    Iron is essential for healthy brain function, but excess accumulation has been linked to oxidative stress and damage to neurons. In Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias, abnormal iron patterns have repeatedly been observed alongside other signs of degeneration.

    The authors argue that the combination of increased regional brain iron and elevated neurofilament light chain could point to an early neurobiological pathway that helps explain epidemiological links between ADHD and dementia. They emphasize, however, that the findings do not mean dementia is inevitable for people with ADHD.

    What this could change next

    With dementia affecting an estimated 55 million people worldwide and nearly 10 million new cases each year, identifying modifiable risks remains a major public health goal. Alzheimer’s disease accounts for roughly 60 to 70% of diagnoses, according to the World Health Organization.

    The researchers say larger, long-term studies are needed to confirm whether these markers predict later cognitive decline and whether interventions can alter risk. They also note the broader importance of recognizing and managing adult ADHD, both for day-to-day functioning and potential long-term brain health.

  • Communication Network Structure May Shape Team Identity and Performance, New Study Finds

    New research is shedding light on why some teams gel quickly while others struggle, even when they have the same skills and resources. The study examines how the structure of a group’s communication network can influence a shared social identity and, in turn, performance.

    The work, led by researchers from Carnegie Mellon University and the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, was published in the journal Small Group Research. It focuses on two network features that are common in organizations: density, meaning how many connections exist among members, and centralization, meaning how concentrated communication is around one or a few people.

    When more connections can backfire

    The researchers argue that communication structures affect more than information flow. They can also shift team psychology by changing how strongly members feel part of a common in-group.

    In a laboratory experiment, 66 groups of four participants completed a software development task while communicating through different network setups. The study tested how varying density and centralization changed both shared identity and results on the task.

    The findings suggest dense networks were most beneficial when communication was less centralized. When connections were spread more evenly across members, teams were more likely to form a shared social identity and perform better.

    Why centralization changes group dynamics

    When networks were highly centralized, adding more ties did not deliver the same gains. The researchers report that bigger differences in who is connected to whom can weaken the sense of shared identity, which can hurt coordination and knowledge sharing.

    The analysis also found that shared social identity helped explain the link between network structure and performance. In other words, the communication network appeared to affect outcomes partly by shaping whether members felt they belonged to the same team.

    Implications for managers and team leaders

    For managers, the research suggests that encouraging more interaction is not automatically helpful if it increases communication imbalances. Leaders may need to pay attention to whether participation is broadly distributed or routed through a small set of central players.

    The authors note limits to how widely the results can be applied, pointing to the small-group setting and tasks requiring interdependence. They also caution that findings may be most relevant when members can accurately perceive their team’s communication patterns.

  • Study finds classroom talk can sharpen students writing by making language choices visible

    How teachers steer classroom discussion can significantly shape how well students learn to write, according to research led by the University of Exeter. The study links purposeful talk about texts to stronger understanding of how writing decisions affect readers.

    Researchers focused on what they describe as metalinguistic talk, meaning discussion that draws attention to word choice, sentence structure and tone. When students explore why an author made certain choices, they are more likely to apply similar thinking to their own writing.

    Why discussion time changes writing

    The findings argue that discussion in secondary English lessons should not be treated as an add-on before writing begins. Instead, time for exploratory conversation can help students test ideas, refine interpretations and connect language features to meaning.

    The study also suggests that open, speculative talk helps more students participate because it values first impressions and partial answers. This can give teachers a clearer window into misunderstandings before they become embedded in a piece of writing.

    What effective teacher talk looks like

    The research highlights the role of scaffolding, where teachers guide students from broad reactions to more precise analysis of language and effect. Clear questioning and follow-up prompts can support students in naming what they notice and explaining why it matters.

    By contrast, vague questioning or rapid clusters of questions can obscure what is being asked and reduce the depth of dialogue. The study argues that this can limit how far students develop the vocabulary and confidence needed to discuss writing choices.

    Inside the Year 9 classrooms

    As part of a three-year project funded by the UK Economic and Social Research Council, researcher Ruth Newman worked with seven teachers in South West England. Lessons were recorded using teacher-worn audio equipment and classroom video to capture the flow of talk.

    The project also reviewed wider evidence on how talk about writing affects learning, concluding that teachers benefit from professional reflection and collaboration. The study frames classroom discussion as a skilled practice that requires responding to unexpected answers and supporting quieter students.

  • PTSD and Relationship Conflict: Study Links Fear of Emotions to Poorer Couple Communication

    People experiencing post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms may struggle to communicate effectively with romantic partners, and a new study suggests fear of emotions could be a key reason. Researchers found that worries about the consequences of feeling strong emotions were tied to more destructive conflict patterns.

    The research, led by Penn State’s Steffany Fredman, analyzed data from 64 opposite-sex couples in which both partners had lived through a traumatic event. Participants reported their PTSD symptoms, their beliefs about emotions, and the communication styles they and their partners used during relationship disagreements.

    How fear of emotions shows up

    Those with higher PTSD symptom levels were more likely to fear their emotions, the study found. That fear was associated with less constructive communication, such as reduced listening, collaborative problem solving, and willingness to compromise.

    Higher fear of emotions was also linked to demand-withdraw dynamics, where one partner presses or criticizes and the other retreats or avoids the discussion. This pattern can intensify conflict, leave problems unresolved, and make future conversations feel even more threatening.

    Why PTSD can strain relationships

    Researchers noted that PTSD often involves mistrust, anger, emotional numbing, avoidance, and withdrawal, which can erode closeness over time. Because romantic relationships naturally trigger strong feelings, emotionally charged moments may resemble trauma reminders for some people with PTSD symptoms.

    In that context, people may try to neutralize distress by shutting down, pulling away, or becoming reactive, responses that can further damage communication. The study describes this as a cycle in which relationship discord can sustain PTSD symptoms unless interrupted.

    Implications for couples and therapy

    Fredman, who has co-developed couple-based PTSD treatments, said addressing PTSD symptoms and fear of emotions together may be important for improving relationship functioning. Prior research by the team has also suggested that couple therapy can reduce PTSD symptoms while improving communication, including in brief intensive formats.

    The authors argue the new findings add detail to why some couples struggle: PTSD symptoms may fuel catastrophic expectations about emotions, which then shapes how partners talk and react. They recommend that interventions help couples build safer ways to experience and express emotion while working through conflict.

  • Childhood Air Pollution May Weaken Teen Brain Connectivity, New Generation R Study Suggests

    A study led by the Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal) reports that children exposed to higher levels of air pollution early in life show weaker connections between key brain regions. The findings, published in Environment International, add to evidence that pollution may influence neurodevelopment.

    Researchers focused on functional connectivity, a measure of how strongly brain areas coordinate activity within and between networks. These networks support attention, movement control, sensory processing, and other cognitive functions that continue to mature through adolescence.

    What the researchers measured

    The analysis used data from 3 626 children in the long-running Generation R cohort in Rotterdam. Air pollution exposure at home addresses was estimated for particulate matter PM2.5 and PM10, plus nitrogen dioxide and other nitrogen oxides.

    Brain scans were taken at rest, first at around age 10 and again at an average age of 14. The team compared pollution exposure from birth to age three with exposure in the year immediately before each neuroimaging assessment.

    Signals seen across adolescence

    Higher pollution exposure from birth to age three was linked to lower connectivity between the amygdala and cortical networks involved in attention, somatomotor function, and auditory processing. The amygdala plays a central role in emotional processing and threat responses.

    Separately, higher recent exposure to PM10 in the year before scanning was associated with reduced connectivity between the salience network and the medial-parietal network. These networks are involved in detecting relevant stimuli and supporting introspection and self-referential thinking.

    Authors cautioned that the study identifies associations rather than proving causation, and that further work is needed to clarify biological mechanisms. Still, they noted that some links appeared to persist through adolescence, raising questions about longer-term effects on cognition and emotion.

    How this fits with earlier findings

    The same research group has also reported associations between prenatal and childhood pollution exposure and changes in brain volume in the Generation R cohort. In that work, higher prenatal exposure to PM2.5 and certain metals was tied to a smaller hippocampus at age 8, followed by signs consistent with compensatory growth later.

    Together, the studies reinforce concerns that common urban air pollution exposures may coincide with measurable differences in the developing brain. The researchers argue the results support policies aimed at reducing traffic-related pollution where children live, learn, and play.

  • Study suggests common English phrases can boost perceived fluency more than advanced vocabulary

    Language learners often assume that using rare, complex vocabulary will make their speech sound more fluent. Research suggests that there is a close relationship between formulaic expression usage in speech and acoustic features of oral fluency. This implies that using formulaic expressions leads to faster articulation speed and fewer disruptions during speech. However, in terms of how listeners perceive speakers’ fluency, the role of formulaic expressions has been unclear.

    To investigate this, Ph.D. student, Kotaro Takizawa and Research Assistant Professor Shungo Suzuki from Waseda University, Japan, analyzed speech from 102 Japanese speakers of English, each delivering an argumentative speech. They measured the use of bigram and trigram expressions (two- and three-word sequences) and had fluency judged by 10 experienced raters. The study controlled for key fluency metrics, including articulation rate, pauses, and self-corrections, to isolate the effect of formulaic expressions on fluency perception. This study was published online in the journal Studies in Second Language Acquisition on February 12, 2025.

    The findings revealed that utterance fluency (smoothness of speech delivery) was the strongest predictor of fluency perception, accounting for 61% of the variance in ratings. However, high-frequency formulaic expressions added an extra 0.8% to fluency judgments, while rarer, more complex phrases had little to no effect.

    The study also reveals that the key to sounding fluent is not about using sophisticated words; it is about using the right phrases. Their study shows that common, everyday expressions have a small but significant impact on how fluency is perceived, even when a factor like smoothness is accounted for. “We found that common, oft-used formulaic expressions, rather than rare, sophisticated ones, significantly influenced rater judgment of speakers’ fluency,” said Takizawa.

    Fluency plays a crucial role in language learning and assessment, especially in standardized tests like TOEFL and IELTS, where expert raters evaluate how natural and smooth a speaker sounds. Traditionally, fluency has been associated with speed and uninterrupted speech, but the role of formulaic expressions (common multi-word phrases) has been less clear. Previous studies suggested that these expressions help speakers communicate more smoothly, but few have examined how they influence fluency perception on their own.

    Suzuki highlighted the practical implications: “It is generally observed that language teachers and learners tend to focus more on rare words or difficult phrases that sound more proficient. However, the current findings indicate that that should not necessarily be the focus, particularly if they want to improve their fluency perceived by others.”

    This research suggests that learners should shift their focus from advanced vocabulary to mastering everyday phrases that come naturally in conversation. For example, instead of saying “I agree the idea” — which sounds unnatural — learners should use “I agree with the idea.” These common expressions are easy to find in textbooks and everyday conversations, making them more accessible for learners of all levels.

    The study has significant implications for language testing, where fluency judgments can impact scores. It suggests that test-takers should focus on integrating natural phrasal expressions into their speech while maintaining the smoothness of their speech. Highlighting the importance of both aspects, “Our research shows that there is no denying that improving fluency in utterance contributes to good fluency judgment scores,” noted Takizawa.

    This study highlights the crucial role of common expressions in shaping how fluency is perceived, offering valuable insights for language learners and educators.

  • Study links rejection sensitivity to classroom conformity and peer pressure in preteens

    Imagine you’re a child in a classroom, and your teacher tells everyone to form groups for a project. You sit and wait, watching as other kids pair up and wondering if anyone will pick you.

    This fear of rejection — familiar to many children and adults — can significantly impact how kids behave in their peer groups, according to new research from the University of Georgia.

    The study found that children who feel anxious about being rejected are more likely to conform to academic expectations like studying harder or following classroom rules. They’re also less likely to engage in troublemaking behaviors. On the other hand, children who actively expect rejection tend to resist conforming to both academic behaviors and popular trends.

    Rejection sensitivity refers to two categories of reactions to potential rejection: rejection expectancy, a cognitive tendency to expect rejection, and anxious or angry anticipation, the emotion felt when anticipating rejection.

    “Rejection sensitivity is a really concerning characteristic in children,” said Michele Lease, a professor in the Mary Frances Early College of Education’s department of educational psychology and co-author of the study. “When children are rejection sensitive, they might worry and become withdrawn or feel angry and become hostile. If they’re trying to fit in and not get rejected, they might learn to conform, ingratiate themselves or be less assertive. Rejection sensitivity is also a good predictor of depression, even before the onset of symptoms.”

    The research, led by recent UGA graduate Cayenne Predix, involved more than 350 fourth and fifth grade students. Participants completed questionnaires with scenarios to measure how likely they were to follow their friends’ behaviors in three areas: academics, trend-following and troublemaking.

    “As a social developmental task, what’s happening at this age is children are trying to learn how to navigate their entire peer network, including their status within their friend group, and that’s a very unique time for trying to understand how kids feel about their place in the group,” said Lease. “It’s not that they don’t have good friendships, they do — they play, they do other things, but at this age one of their primary tasks is learning how to fit in.”

    Interestingly, witnessing relational victimization including gossiping or bullying did not consistently influence children’s conformity across behaviors. Instead, children’s emotional and cognitive reactions to potential rejection were the strongest predictors of whether they would follow group norms.

    Specifically, anxious children were more inclined to avoid disruptive actions and match their peers’ positive academic behaviors such as studying more or participating in class. Conversely, those who expected rejection were less likely to conform academically or socially.

    “Overall, the study’s findings underscore the need to consider both the emotional and cognitive aspects of rejection sensitivity when investigating conformity, especially in the context of relational aggression within friendship groups,” Lease said.

    Lease and her research team including Mihyun Kim, UGA doctoral candidate, and Kyongboon Kwon, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee professor, are continuing their research to explore how friendship group norms influence sensitivity to rejection and conformity.

  • Lip Size and Attraction: New Study Finds Men and Women Judge Faces Differently

    A new psychology study suggests lip size can subtly shape how attractive a face is perceived, and that preferences can differ depending on the viewer’s gender. The research also indicates that recent visual exposure can shift what people see as appealing.

    The work was led by Professor David Alais at the University of Sydney and used digitally altered images of faces that varied only in lip size. Participants were asked to rate attractiveness, allowing researchers to isolate lip size as a single factor.

    Gender differences in lip preference

    Across participants overall, ratings tended to favor thinner lips on male-presenting faces and fuller lips on female-presenting faces. When broken down by gender, women showed a stronger preference for fuller lips on female faces, while men more often preferred female faces with unaltered, natural-looking lip size.

    The authors argue the pattern points to observer-dependent standards, meaning judgments are shaped not just by the face being viewed but also by who is doing the viewing. The findings were published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B.

    How fast exposure can shift taste

    The experiments also found an adaptation effect, where brief exposure to plumper or thinner lips changed what participants rated as attractive immediately afterward. After seeing fuller lips, people were more likely to rate fuller lips as attractive in subsequent faces, with a similar shift after exposure to thinner lips.

    Notably, the effect appeared even when participants adapted to lips presented without the full face context, suggesting the brain may encode lip size as a distinct feature. Researchers say this kind of rapid recalibration has been observed in other areas of visual preference.

    Implications for cosmetic trends and body image

    With lip augmentation widely promoted through celebrity culture and social media, the study raises questions about how repeated exposure to enhanced features may reset perceived norms. Alais warned that this could contribute to a slide toward ever-plumper ideals, sometimes described as lip dysmorphia.

    “Our research highlights the subjective nature of beauty and the powerful influence of social and cultural factors,” Alais said. The team says more research is needed to understand whether these short-term shifts accumulate into long-term changes in body image and aesthetic expectations.

    In the study, 32 students, split evenly between women and men, rated 168 manipulated faces spanning seven lip sizes from thinner to fuller than a defined norm. Each image was shown briefly, designed to capture quick, instinctive judgments rather than slow deliberation.