CP v2

Blog

  • Communication Network Structure May Shape Team Identity and Performance, New Study Finds

    New research is shedding light on why some teams gel quickly while others struggle, even when they have the same skills and resources. The study examines how the structure of a group’s communication network can influence a shared social identity and, in turn, performance.

    The work, led by researchers from Carnegie Mellon University and the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, was published in the journal Small Group Research. It focuses on two network features that are common in organizations: density, meaning how many connections exist among members, and centralization, meaning how concentrated communication is around one or a few people.

    When more connections can backfire

    The researchers argue that communication structures affect more than information flow. They can also shift team psychology by changing how strongly members feel part of a common in-group.

    In a laboratory experiment, 66 groups of four participants completed a software development task while communicating through different network setups. The study tested how varying density and centralization changed both shared identity and results on the task.

    The findings suggest dense networks were most beneficial when communication was less centralized. When connections were spread more evenly across members, teams were more likely to form a shared social identity and perform better.

    Why centralization changes group dynamics

    When networks were highly centralized, adding more ties did not deliver the same gains. The researchers report that bigger differences in who is connected to whom can weaken the sense of shared identity, which can hurt coordination and knowledge sharing.

    The analysis also found that shared social identity helped explain the link between network structure and performance. In other words, the communication network appeared to affect outcomes partly by shaping whether members felt they belonged to the same team.

    Implications for managers and team leaders

    For managers, the research suggests that encouraging more interaction is not automatically helpful if it increases communication imbalances. Leaders may need to pay attention to whether participation is broadly distributed or routed through a small set of central players.

    The authors note limits to how widely the results can be applied, pointing to the small-group setting and tasks requiring interdependence. They also caution that findings may be most relevant when members can accurately perceive their team’s communication patterns.

  • Cutting Daily TV Time May Lower Depression Risk, With Middle Age Seeing the Biggest Gains

    Cutting Daily TV Time May Lower Depression Risk, With Middle Age Seeing the Biggest Gains

    Reducing time spent watching television and replacing it with more active or restorative habits may lower the risk of major depressive disorder, according to a new study published in European Psychiatry.

    The research suggests the strongest benefits appear in middle-aged adults, while effects are smaller or less consistent among younger and older groups.

    Unlike earlier studies that often linked sedentary behavior to poorer mental health in general, the new analysis focused on what happens when TV time is actively swapped for specific alternatives such as sports, sleep, or other daily activities.

    Lead author Rosa Palazuelos-González of the University of Groningen said the work helps clarify how reallocating screen time, rather than simply reducing it, could influence depression risk over time.

    What the researchers measured

    The study drew on Lifelines, a large Dutch population cohort that followed 65 454 adults who did not have depression at the start of the analysis.

    Participants were tracked for four years, reporting time spent watching TV, sleeping, doing household tasks, commuting, leisure activity, physical activity at work or school, and sports.

    Major depressive disorder was assessed using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview, a structured diagnostic tool widely used in clinical and research settings.

    When researchers modeled a 60-minute shift away from TV toward other activities, they found an 11% lower likelihood of developing major depression across the overall sample.

    In scenarios where 90 or 120 minutes were reallocated, the estimated reduction in likelihood increased, reaching about 25.91% for larger shifts.

    Middle age stands out most

    The largest estimated improvements were seen in middle-aged adults, where replacing one hour of TV per day was associated with an 18.78% lower risk of developing depression.

    In that same age group, reallocating 90 minutes was linked to a 29% reduction, and replacing two hours corresponded to a 43% drop in risk.

    Most substitutions were associated with better outcomes, but swapping only 30 minutes of TV for household chores did not appear to meaningfully change risk.

    By contrast, replacing 30 minutes with sports was associated with an 18% reduction, the biggest improvement among the activities analyzed.

    Why age differences may matter

    Among older adults, the researchers did not find broad, statistically meaningful changes when TV time was redistributed, except when the replacement activity was sports.

    In that group, shifting 30 to 90 minutes from TV to sports was linked to modest decreases in depression probability.

    In younger adults, moving time away from TV toward physical activity did not significantly change depression risk in the models.

    The authors suggested this may be because younger participants tend to be more active overall, potentially already meeting thresholds where additional activity yields smaller mental health benefits.

    The findings do not prove that television causes depression, but they add evidence that how people spend discretionary time may matter, especially in midlife.

    For individuals looking to reduce risk, the results point toward practical substitutions, with sports and other movement-based activities showing the most consistent associations.

  • Study finds classroom talk can sharpen students writing by making language choices visible

    How teachers steer classroom discussion can significantly shape how well students learn to write, according to research led by the University of Exeter. The study links purposeful talk about texts to stronger understanding of how writing decisions affect readers.

    Researchers focused on what they describe as metalinguistic talk, meaning discussion that draws attention to word choice, sentence structure and tone. When students explore why an author made certain choices, they are more likely to apply similar thinking to their own writing.

    Why discussion time changes writing

    The findings argue that discussion in secondary English lessons should not be treated as an add-on before writing begins. Instead, time for exploratory conversation can help students test ideas, refine interpretations and connect language features to meaning.

    The study also suggests that open, speculative talk helps more students participate because it values first impressions and partial answers. This can give teachers a clearer window into misunderstandings before they become embedded in a piece of writing.

    What effective teacher talk looks like

    The research highlights the role of scaffolding, where teachers guide students from broad reactions to more precise analysis of language and effect. Clear questioning and follow-up prompts can support students in naming what they notice and explaining why it matters.

    By contrast, vague questioning or rapid clusters of questions can obscure what is being asked and reduce the depth of dialogue. The study argues that this can limit how far students develop the vocabulary and confidence needed to discuss writing choices.

    Inside the Year 9 classrooms

    As part of a three-year project funded by the UK Economic and Social Research Council, researcher Ruth Newman worked with seven teachers in South West England. Lessons were recorded using teacher-worn audio equipment and classroom video to capture the flow of talk.

    The project also reviewed wider evidence on how talk about writing affects learning, concluding that teachers benefit from professional reflection and collaboration. The study frames classroom discussion as a skilled practice that requires responding to unexpected answers and supporting quieter students.

  • New brain-mapping study suggests psychedelics mute visual reality and amplify memory signals

    New brain-mapping study suggests psychedelics mute visual reality and amplify memory signals

    Psychedelic substances act on the brain by binding to serotonin receptors. Scientists have identified at least 14 different receptors that respond to the neurotransmitter serotonin. Psychedelics are especially drawn to one known as the 2A receptor. This receptor not only affects learning but also dampens activity in parts of the brain responsible for processing visual information.

    “We have observed in earlier studies that visual processes in the brain are suppressed by this receptor,” says Callum White, first author of the study. “This means that visual information about things happening in the outside world becomes less accessible to our consciousness. To fill this gap in the puzzle, our brain inserts fragments from memory — it hallucinates.”

    In other words, when incoming visual signals are reduced, the brain compensates by pulling stored images and experiences from memory. Those internally generated fragments can blend into perception, producing hallucinations.

    Slow Brain Waves Shift Perception Toward Memory

    The researchers also uncovered how this shift unfolds in real time. Psychedelics increase rhythmic patterns of brain activity, known as oscillations, in visual regions. Oscillations are coordinated waves of neural firing that help different parts of the brain communicate with each other.

    After psychedelics were administered, the team observed a rise in low-frequency (5-Hz) waves in visual areas. These slower waves stimulated another region called the retrosplenial cortex, a key hub involved in accessing stored memories. As this communication strengthens, the brain enters a different operating mode. Awareness of current external events becomes weaker, while perception relies more heavily on recalled information. As Professor Dirk Jancke, who led the study, describes it, the experience is “a bit like partial dreaming.”

    Real-Time Brain Imaging Reveals the Mechanism

    To capture these changes, the scientists used an advanced optical imaging technique that tracks neural activity across the entire surface of the brain in real time. The experiments relied on specially engineered mice created by Professor Thomas Knöpfel at Hong Kong Baptist University. These animals were designed to produce fluorescent proteins in specific types of brain cells.

    This approach allowed researchers to pinpoint the source of the signals they recorded. “We therefore know exactly in our experiments that the measured fluorescent signals originate from pyramidal cells of the cortical layers 2/3 and 5, which mediate communication within and between brain regions,” says Jancke. These cells play a central role in transmitting information across the cortex.

    Implications for Depression and Anxiety Treatment

    The findings may also help refine psychedelic-assisted therapy. Researchers believe that, under medical supervision, these substances can temporarily shift brain activity in ways that encourage the recall of positive memories and weaken deeply ingrained negative thought patterns.

    “When used under medical supervision, such substances can temporarily change the state of the brain to selectively recall positive memory content and restructure learned, excessively negative thought patterns, i.e., to be able to unlearn negative context. It will be exciting to see how such therapies are further personalized in the future,” says Jancke.

    By clarifying how psychedelics redirect perception from the outside world to internal memory networks, the study provides a clearer biological explanation for both hallucinations and the growing therapeutic potential of these compounds.

  • PTSD and Relationship Conflict: Study Links Fear of Emotions to Poorer Couple Communication

    People experiencing post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms may struggle to communicate effectively with romantic partners, and a new study suggests fear of emotions could be a key reason. Researchers found that worries about the consequences of feeling strong emotions were tied to more destructive conflict patterns.

    The research, led by Penn State’s Steffany Fredman, analyzed data from 64 opposite-sex couples in which both partners had lived through a traumatic event. Participants reported their PTSD symptoms, their beliefs about emotions, and the communication styles they and their partners used during relationship disagreements.

    How fear of emotions shows up

    Those with higher PTSD symptom levels were more likely to fear their emotions, the study found. That fear was associated with less constructive communication, such as reduced listening, collaborative problem solving, and willingness to compromise.

    Higher fear of emotions was also linked to demand-withdraw dynamics, where one partner presses or criticizes and the other retreats or avoids the discussion. This pattern can intensify conflict, leave problems unresolved, and make future conversations feel even more threatening.

    Why PTSD can strain relationships

    Researchers noted that PTSD often involves mistrust, anger, emotional numbing, avoidance, and withdrawal, which can erode closeness over time. Because romantic relationships naturally trigger strong feelings, emotionally charged moments may resemble trauma reminders for some people with PTSD symptoms.

    In that context, people may try to neutralize distress by shutting down, pulling away, or becoming reactive, responses that can further damage communication. The study describes this as a cycle in which relationship discord can sustain PTSD symptoms unless interrupted.

    Implications for couples and therapy

    Fredman, who has co-developed couple-based PTSD treatments, said addressing PTSD symptoms and fear of emotions together may be important for improving relationship functioning. Prior research by the team has also suggested that couple therapy can reduce PTSD symptoms while improving communication, including in brief intensive formats.

    The authors argue the new findings add detail to why some couples struggle: PTSD symptoms may fuel catastrophic expectations about emotions, which then shapes how partners talk and react. They recommend that interventions help couples build safer ways to experience and express emotion while working through conflict.

  • New study maps adolescent synapse hotspots, raising fresh questions about brain pruning and schizophrenia risk

    New study maps adolescent synapse hotspots, raising fresh questions about brain pruning and schizophrenia risk

    Researchers have identified previously overlooked synapse hotspots that form during adolescence, suggesting the teenage brain may actively build dense new connections alongside the well-known process of synaptic pruning. The findings, reported by Kyushu University scientists in Science Advances, add nuance to how neural circuits mature during a critical developmental window.

    Synapses are the communication points between neurons, and for decades a common model held that synapse numbers rise in childhood and then drop in adolescence as weaker links are removed. That pruning-focused framework has influenced theories of neuropsychiatric disorders, including the idea that excessive synapse loss could contribute to schizophrenia.

    The new work points to a more complex picture: localized bursts of synapse formation in specific parts of neurons. Using a tissue-clearing technique and super-resolution imaging, the team mapped dendritic spines across entire Layer 5 cortical neurons, which play a major role in integrating signals and producing cortical output.

    In young mice before weaning, dendritic spines were distributed more evenly along neurons. Between about three and eight weeks of age, the researchers observed a sharp rise in spine density in a single section of the apical dendrite, culminating in a tightly packed hotspot that was not present earlier.

    The authors argue this pattern means adolescent development is not defined solely by pruning, but also by targeted construction of new synaptic clusters. They also report that in mice carrying mutations in genes linked to schizophrenia risk, the hotspot did not develop normally because synapse formation during adolescence was reduced.

    While the results rely on mouse models and do not confirm the same mechanism in humans, they sharpen questions about which circuits are built during adolescence and how disruptions might alter brain function. The researchers say the next step is to identify the brain regions and inputs driving these newly formed connections during the adolescent period.

  • Childhood Air Pollution May Weaken Teen Brain Connectivity, New Generation R Study Suggests

    A study led by the Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal) reports that children exposed to higher levels of air pollution early in life show weaker connections between key brain regions. The findings, published in Environment International, add to evidence that pollution may influence neurodevelopment.

    Researchers focused on functional connectivity, a measure of how strongly brain areas coordinate activity within and between networks. These networks support attention, movement control, sensory processing, and other cognitive functions that continue to mature through adolescence.

    What the researchers measured

    The analysis used data from 3 626 children in the long-running Generation R cohort in Rotterdam. Air pollution exposure at home addresses was estimated for particulate matter PM2.5 and PM10, plus nitrogen dioxide and other nitrogen oxides.

    Brain scans were taken at rest, first at around age 10 and again at an average age of 14. The team compared pollution exposure from birth to age three with exposure in the year immediately before each neuroimaging assessment.

    Signals seen across adolescence

    Higher pollution exposure from birth to age three was linked to lower connectivity between the amygdala and cortical networks involved in attention, somatomotor function, and auditory processing. The amygdala plays a central role in emotional processing and threat responses.

    Separately, higher recent exposure to PM10 in the year before scanning was associated with reduced connectivity between the salience network and the medial-parietal network. These networks are involved in detecting relevant stimuli and supporting introspection and self-referential thinking.

    Authors cautioned that the study identifies associations rather than proving causation, and that further work is needed to clarify biological mechanisms. Still, they noted that some links appeared to persist through adolescence, raising questions about longer-term effects on cognition and emotion.

    How this fits with earlier findings

    The same research group has also reported associations between prenatal and childhood pollution exposure and changes in brain volume in the Generation R cohort. In that work, higher prenatal exposure to PM2.5 and certain metals was tied to a smaller hippocampus at age 8, followed by signs consistent with compensatory growth later.

    Together, the studies reinforce concerns that common urban air pollution exposures may coincide with measurable differences in the developing brain. The researchers argue the results support policies aimed at reducing traffic-related pollution where children live, learn, and play.

  • Startavo „Gamtos herojai 2026“: kas gali kandidatuoti ir kaip iki spalio 31 dienos pateikti paraišką

    Aplinkosauginė iniciatyva „Kita forma“ paskelbė kvietimą teikti paraiškas konkursui „Gamtos herojai 2026“. Tai jau šeštą kartą rengiamas projektas, kuriuo siekiama viešai įvertinti žmones ir organizacijas, savo darbais prisidedančius prie aplinkos apsaugos ir tvarumo.

    Organizatoriai pabrėžia, kad vertinami ne pažadai, o realūs veiksmai: nuo kasdienių sprendimų bendruomenėje iki ilgalaikių iniciatyvų, keičiančių įpročius mokyklose ar organizacijose. Taip pat akcentuojamas aplinkosauginis švietimas ir gebėjimas įkvėpti kitus prisidėti.

    Kas gali pretenduoti?

    Šių metų konkurse numatytos trys nominacijų kryptys: tvarumą skatinanti nevyriausybinė organizacija ar iniciatyva, ekologiškiausias pedagogas bei aplinkai draugiškiausias mokinys arba studentas. Dalyvauti kviečiami įvairaus amžiaus ir patirties dalyviai, jei tik veikla susijusi su aplinkosauga ir tvarumu.

    Konkurso organizatoriai nurodo, kad darbai turi būti įgyvendinti per pastaruosius metus. Tokia sąlyga leidžia įvertinti aktualiausias iniciatyvas ir užtikrinti, kad apdovanojimai atspindėtų dabartines tvarumo tendencijas.

    Kaip vyks atranka ir apdovanojimai?

    Paraiškas dalyviai teikia užpildydami registracijos anketą, o dalyvavimas yra nemokamas. Nugalėtojams numatytos rėmėjų dovanos, o apdovanojimai planuojami gyvai Vilniuje, Jaunimo tvarumo festivalio metu.

    Registracija vyksta iki spalio 31 dienos. Organizatoriai ragina nedelsti ir pateikti informaciją aiškiai, akcentuojant konkrečius rezultatus: kokie pokyčiai pasiekti, kas įtraukta į veiklas ir kaip iniciatyva prisidėjo prie tvaresnių sprendimų.

    Partneriai ir kontaktai

    Projektą palaiko savivaldybės ir regioniniai atliekų tvarkymo centrai, tarp jų Vilniaus miesto savivaldybė, Prienų rajono savivaldybė, Klaipėdos miesto savivaldybė, Alytaus miesto savivaldybė, taip pat Kauno ir Šiaulių regionų atliekų tvarkymo centrai. Organizatoriai pažymi, kad partnerystės padeda konkursui pasiekti daugiau bendruomenių ir stiprina aplinkosaugines iniciatyvas regionuose.

    Dėl konkurso sąlygų ir dalyvavimo tvarkos galima kreiptis į organizatorių atstovę Tomą Jakutytę. Papildoma informacija skelbiama iniciatyvos „Kita forma“ oficialiuose kanaluose.

  • Study suggests common English phrases can boost perceived fluency more than advanced vocabulary

    Language learners often assume that using rare, complex vocabulary will make their speech sound more fluent. Research suggests that there is a close relationship between formulaic expression usage in speech and acoustic features of oral fluency. This implies that using formulaic expressions leads to faster articulation speed and fewer disruptions during speech. However, in terms of how listeners perceive speakers’ fluency, the role of formulaic expressions has been unclear.

    To investigate this, Ph.D. student, Kotaro Takizawa and Research Assistant Professor Shungo Suzuki from Waseda University, Japan, analyzed speech from 102 Japanese speakers of English, each delivering an argumentative speech. They measured the use of bigram and trigram expressions (two- and three-word sequences) and had fluency judged by 10 experienced raters. The study controlled for key fluency metrics, including articulation rate, pauses, and self-corrections, to isolate the effect of formulaic expressions on fluency perception. This study was published online in the journal Studies in Second Language Acquisition on February 12, 2025.

    The findings revealed that utterance fluency (smoothness of speech delivery) was the strongest predictor of fluency perception, accounting for 61% of the variance in ratings. However, high-frequency formulaic expressions added an extra 0.8% to fluency judgments, while rarer, more complex phrases had little to no effect.

    The study also reveals that the key to sounding fluent is not about using sophisticated words; it is about using the right phrases. Their study shows that common, everyday expressions have a small but significant impact on how fluency is perceived, even when a factor like smoothness is accounted for. “We found that common, oft-used formulaic expressions, rather than rare, sophisticated ones, significantly influenced rater judgment of speakers’ fluency,” said Takizawa.

    Fluency plays a crucial role in language learning and assessment, especially in standardized tests like TOEFL and IELTS, where expert raters evaluate how natural and smooth a speaker sounds. Traditionally, fluency has been associated with speed and uninterrupted speech, but the role of formulaic expressions (common multi-word phrases) has been less clear. Previous studies suggested that these expressions help speakers communicate more smoothly, but few have examined how they influence fluency perception on their own.

    Suzuki highlighted the practical implications: “It is generally observed that language teachers and learners tend to focus more on rare words or difficult phrases that sound more proficient. However, the current findings indicate that that should not necessarily be the focus, particularly if they want to improve their fluency perceived by others.”

    This research suggests that learners should shift their focus from advanced vocabulary to mastering everyday phrases that come naturally in conversation. For example, instead of saying “I agree the idea” — which sounds unnatural — learners should use “I agree with the idea.” These common expressions are easy to find in textbooks and everyday conversations, making them more accessible for learners of all levels.

    The study has significant implications for language testing, where fluency judgments can impact scores. It suggests that test-takers should focus on integrating natural phrasal expressions into their speech while maintaining the smoothness of their speech. Highlighting the importance of both aspects, “Our research shows that there is no denying that improving fluency in utterance contributes to good fluency judgment scores,” noted Takizawa.

    This study highlights the crucial role of common expressions in shaping how fluency is perceived, offering valuable insights for language learners and educators.

  • Vagus nerve stimulation implant shows lasting gains for treatment-resistant depression, and some patients reach remission

    Vagus nerve stimulation implant shows lasting gains for treatment-resistant depression, and some patients reach remission

    About one in five adults in the United States will experience major depression at some point in their lives. Many people improve after trying a few treatments, but for as many as one-third of patients, standard antidepressants or psychotherapy do not provide enough relief. This condition, known as treatment-resistant depression, can persist for years or even decades. New research now suggests that a small implanted device may offer meaningful and long-lasting improvement for people with the most severe forms of the illness.

    Scientists at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis led a large, multicenter clinical trial to evaluate this approach. The researchers found that a device designed to stimulate the vagus nerve was linked to sustained improvements in depressive symptoms, daily functioning, and overall quality of life. For most patients who showed improvement after one year, those gains continued for at least two years.

    The participants in the study had lived with depression for an average of 29 years and had already tried about 13 treatments without success. These included intensive options such as electroconvulsive therapy and transcranial magnetic stimulation, highlighting just how difficult their condition had been to treat.

    The latest results come from the ongoing RECOVER trial and were published Jan. 13 in the International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology.

    “We believe the sample in this trial represents the sickest treatment-resistant depressed patient sample ever studied in a clinical trial,” said lead author Charles Conway, MD, a professor of psychiatry and director of the WashU Medicine Treatment Resistant Mood Disorders Center. “There is a dire need to find effective treatments for these patients, who often have no other options. With this kind of chronic, disabling illness, even a partial response to treatment is life-altering, and with vagus nerve stimulation we’re seeing that benefit is lasting.”

    How vagus nerve stimulation works

    The RECOVER study was designed to test whether adding vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) to ongoing care could improve outcomes for people with treatment-resistant depression. The therapy involves surgically placing a device under the skin in the chest. The device sends carefully controlled electrical signals to the left vagus nerve — a key communication pathway between the brain and many internal organs.

    The VNS Therapy System is made by LivaNova USA, Inc., which sponsored and funded the RECOVER trial. The study is collecting long-term data on mood, daily function, and quality of life in people with severe treatment-resistant depression. One aim of the research is to help the U.S. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) decide whether to expand coverage for the therapy. Because many private insurers follow CMS decisions, approval could make the treatment accessible to far more patients, as cost has been a major barrier.

    Inside the RECOVER trial

    Nearly 500 patients were enrolled across 84 locations in the United States. About three-quarters of participants were so severely affected by depression that they were unable to work. All patients received the implanted device, but only half had the device activated during the first year to allow for comparison. Researchers tracked changes in depression severity, quality of life, and everyday functioning.

    A response was considered meaningful if symptoms improved by at least 30% compared with the start of the study. A reduction of 50% or more was classified as a “substantial” response.

    Conway emphasized that even modest improvements can dramatically change a person’s life. Severe depression can leave people feeling “paralyzed by life,” unable to manage basic daily activities and at higher risk of hospitalization or early death.

    Earlier findings from the blinded first year of the trial showed that patients with activated devices spent more time with improved mood, better functioning, and higher quality of life than those whose devices were not active. However, the primary measurement tool (the Montgomery-Åsberg depression scale, which measures the severity of depressive episodes) did not show a statistically significant difference between the two groups.

    Benefits that last over time

    In the newest analysis, the researchers focused on patients whose devices were active from the start of the trial. They wanted to see whether improvements seen at 12 months would continue through 24 months. They also examined whether some patients who did not improve in the first year might respond later with continued treatment.

    Out of 214 patients who received active treatment from the beginning, about 69%, or 147 people, showed a meaningful response at one year in at least one outcome measure. Among those who benefited at 12 months, more than 80% maintained or improved their results by the two-year mark across measures of depression, quality of life, and daily functioning. For patients with a substantial response at one year — defined as at least a 50% reduction in symptoms — 92% were still benefiting at two years.

    Nearly one-third of participants who had not improved after the first year reported benefits by the end of the second year, suggesting that the therapy may take longer to work for some individuals. Relapse rates remained low among those who responded, particularly among the strongest responders.

    The researchers also found that more than 20% of treated patients, or 39 people, were in remission after 24 months. This means their symptoms had eased enough for them to function normally in daily life, a result Conway described as especially notable.

    “We were shocked that one in five patients was effectively without depressive symptoms at the end of two years,” he said. “Seeing results like that for this complicated illness makes me optimistic about the future of this treatment. These results are highly atypical, as most studies of markedly treatment-resistant depression have very poor sustainability of benefit, certainly not at two years. We’re seeing people getting better and staying better.”

    Funding and disclosures

    The study was supported by LivaNova, PLC, the developer and manufacturer of the Vagus Nerve Stimulation therapy system. LivaNova, PLC supported the study design, data analysis, and preparation of the report. The U.S. Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services approved the study under its NCD VNS for Treatment Resistant Depression. The authors alone made the final decision on the manuscript content and its submission for publication.

    Conway has received research support from the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention, Assurex Health, August Busch IV Foundation, Barnes-Jewish Hospital Foundation, LivaNova, National Institute of Mental Health, and the Taylor Family Institute for Innovative Psychiatric Research. He has also served as a consultant for LivaNova.